He had faith in the cumulative power of culture. Author of. Yet there are four seasons going round and there are the hundred things coming into being. [129], Translations of Confucian texts influenced European thinkers of the period,[130] particularly among the Deists and other philosophical groups of the Enlightenment who were interested by the integration of the system of morality of Confucius into Western civilization. They also fought wars to enforce the belief system on others and enforce specific versions of it,[98][99] possibly some of the first in religious history done by factions who believed only a single divine being was the primary force driving the world. While China has always had a diversity of religious beliefs, filial piety has been common to almost all of them; historian Hugh D.R. Confucius may have initiated a cultural process known in the West as Confucianism, but he and those who followed him considered themselves part of a tradition, later identified by Chinese historians as the rujia, scholarly tradition, that had its origins two millennia previously, when the legendary sages Yao and Shun created a civilized world through moral persuasion. "[60] Moreover, Mencius indicated that if the ruler is incompetent, he should be replaced. Although only 2% are adherents of Christianity, it is becoming a popular alternative. In other words, while examinations may ensure that early-career officials are competent and educated, how is it thereafter ensured that only those who rule well get promoted? A conceptual framework". They argue that voters tend to act in irrational, tribal, short-termist ways; they are vulnerable to populism and struggle to account for the interests of future generations. [14], Tin (), a key concept in Chinese thought, refers to the God of Heaven, the northern culmen of the skies and its spinning stars,[36] earthly nature and its laws which come from Heaven, to "Heaven and Earth" (that is, "all things"), and to the awe-inspiring forces beyond human control. Rites and sacrifices to the gods have an ethical importance: they generate good life, because taking part in them leads to the overcoming of the self. The superior man [Junzi] cannot care about the everything, just as he cannot go to check all himself! Second, and most important, is serving the interests of the people (and the common good more broadly). Reciprocity or responsibility (renqing) extends beyond filial piety and involves the entire network of social relations, even the respect for rulers. It is exemplified by a normal adult's protective feelings for children. At the national level, Bai proposes two chambers: one of meritocrats (selected by examination, by examination and promotion, from leaders in certain professional fields, etc. In this set of flashcards, you will learn about the long and fascinating history of one Asia's most major religions: Confucianism. The scholarly tradition envisioned by Confucius can be traced to the sage-kings of antiquity. Legge), Xun Zi chapter (22) "On the Rectification of Names" claims the ancient sage-kings chose names (; mng) that directly corresponded with actualities (; sh), but later generations confused terminology, coined new nomenclature, and thus could no longer distinguish right from wrong. In Zhou theology, Tian had no singular earthly progeny, but bestowed divine favour on virtuous rulers. Confucius (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) How Does Confucianism Influence Health Behaviors, Health Outcomes and These movements are not a part of mainstream Confucianism, although the boundary between Chinese folk religion and Confucianism can be blurred. Many European and American admirers such as Voltaire and Herrlee G. Creel point to the revolutionary idea of replacing nobility of blood with nobility of virtue. To Confucius, the junzi sustained the functions of government and social stratification through his ethical values. Become a member. Should the ruler be surrounded by xiaoren as opposed to junzi, his governance and his people will suffer due to their small-mindness. Correctly performed rituals move society in alignment with earthly and heavenly (astral) forces, establishing the harmony of the three realmsHeaven, Earth and humanity. [13] "Confucian businessmen" ( rshngrn, also "refined businessman") is a recently rediscovered concept defining people of the economic-entrepreneurial elite who recognise their social responsibility and therefore apply Confucian culture to their business. Confucianism was not successfully spread by Confucius. In the 16th and the 17th centuries, the earliest European arrivals in China, the Christian Jesuits, considered Confucianism to be an ethical system, not a religion, and one that was compatible with Christianity. FOUNDED: c. 1050-256 b.c.e. Confucianism. Confucianism is the way of life propagated by Confucius in the 6th-5th century BCE and followed by the Chinese people for more than two millennia. [41], Regarding personal gods (shn, energies who emanate from and reproduce the Tin) enliving nature, in the Analects Confucius says that it is appropriate (; ; y) for people to worship ( jng) them,[45] though through proper rites (; ; l), implying respect of positions and discretion. Mao Zedong tried to suppress Confucianism, a philosophy that guided state and personal behaviour for centuries. Going beyond the Master, they theorised the oneness of production and reabsorption into the cosmic source, and the possibility to understand and therefore reattain it through meditation. Updates? Such efforts effectively expanded the Malthusian limits to population growth in preindustrial China, even in the absence of productivity gains. [42], Zigong, a disciple of Confucius, said that Tin had set the master on the path to become a wise man (9.6). Similarly, the lower house allows citizens to be represented, have a voice in public affairs (albeit a weak one), and ensure accountability. [134] The New Life Movement in the early 20th century was also influenced by Confucianism. Examples of such xiaoren individuals may range from those who continually indulge in sensual and emotional pleasures all day to the politician who is interested merely in power and fame; neither sincerely aims for the long-term benefit of others. [101], The conflict created a need for new political models to solve the crisis. [97], Confucianists historically tried to proselytize to others,[98] although this is rarely done in modern times. On the contrary, the xiaoren (, xiorn, "small or petty person") does not grasp the value of virtues and seeks only immediate gains. Religion in China: History and Statistics said Zi-lu. [162][163] But using a broader definition, such as Frederick Streng's characterisation of religion as "a means of ultimate transformation",[164] Confucianism could be described as a "sociopolitical doctrine having religious qualities. [142] Starting from the Han period, Confucians began to teach that a virtuous woman was supposed to follow the males in her family: the father before her marriage, the husband after she marries, and her sons in widowhood. [30] Rn, translated as "humaneness" or the essence proper of a human being, is the character of compassionate mind; it is the virtue endowed by Heaven and at the same time the means by which man may achieve oneness with Heaven comprehending his own origin in Heaven and therefore divine essence. Confucianism was initiated by the disciples of Confucius, developed by Mencius (c. 372-289 BCE) and inherited by later generations, undergoing constant transformations and restructuring since its establishment, but preserving the principles of humaneness and righteousness at its core. She stresses the complementarity and equal importance of the male and female roles according to yin-yang theory, but she clearly accepts the dominance of the male. For them, Confucianism does not have to be premised on the assumption that meritorious, virtuous political leadership is inherently incompatible with popular sovereignty, political equality and the right to political participation. Creation is therefore a continuous ordering; it is not a creation ex nihilo. How many Confucianism followers are there worldwide? [51][52], Kelly James Clark argued that Confucius himself saw Tin as an anthropomorphic god that Clark hypothetically refers to as "Heavenly Supreme Emperor", although most other scholars on Confucianism disagree with this view. Confucianism is a philosophy developed by Master Kong (known more commonly as Confucius) during China's Zhou Dynasty (1045 - 253 BC). So, in light of Xi's call for Confucianism to benefit society in concrete ways, private . Zhou kings declared that their victory over the Shang was because they were virtuous and loved their people, while the Shang were tyrants and thus were deprived of power by Tian.[3]. [66], In Confucian philosophy, filial piety (, xio) is a virtue of respect for one's parents and ancestors, and of the hierarchies within society: fatherson, elderjunior and malefemale. [141], Joseph A. Adler points out that "Neo-Confucian writings do not necessarily reflect either the prevailing social practices or the scholars' own attitudes and practices in regard to actual women. In a much-discussed passage, women are grouped together with xiaoren (, literally "small people", meaning people of low status or low moral) and described as being difficult to cultivate or deal with. Though Confucius is sometimes credited with founding Confucianism, he said that he was interpreting the philosophy of Zhougong, the duke of Zhou, rather than creating new doctrine. The name Confucius, a Latinized combination of the surname Kong with an honorific suffix "Master" ( fuzi ), has also come to be . These stories depict how children exercised their filial piety in the past. They call this approach "progressive conservatism", a term that reflects the ambiguous place of the Confucian tradition within the Left-Right dichotomy. This represents 0.09% of the world's population, or slightly less than 1%. Among all things of creation, humans themselves are "central" because they have the ability to cultivate and centre natural forces.[58]. He was educated in Shang-Zhou theology, which he contributed to transmit and reformulate giving centrality to self-cultivation and agency of humans,[3] and the educational power of the self-established individual in assisting others to establish themselves (the principle of irn, "loving others"). Confucianism - Transformation since the 19th century The fact that traditional ways had lost vitality did not, for him, diminish their potential for regeneration in the future. . [46], Some Confucian movements worship Confucius,[49] although not as a supreme being or anything else approaching the power of tian or the dao, and/or gods from Chinese folk religion. Its influence has also extended to other countries, particularly Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. [citation needed] Modern Confucianism is the descendant of movements that greatly changed how they practiced the teachings of Confucius and his disciples from previous orthodox teachings. [65], Many Confucians also realised that loyalty and filial piety have the potential of coming into conflict with one another. Confucius replied, "There is government, when the prince is prince, and the minister is minister; when the father is father, and the son is son.". The Master said: "In teaching, there should be no distinction of classes.". This idea is developed further in the Great Learning, and is tightly linked with the Taoist concept of wu wei (; ; w wi): the less the king does, the more gets done. They searched for new doctrines to replace Confucian teachings; some of these new ideologies include the "Three Principles of the People" with the establishment of the Republic of China, and then Maoism under the People's Republic of China. Since social harmony is of utmost importance, without the proper rectification of names, society would essentially crumble and "undertakings [would] not [be] completed. The only relationship where respect for elders is not stressed was the friend to friend relationship, where mutual equal respect is emphasised instead. He was a philosopher and political figure who lived during a time when traditional Chinese . [156], Ever since Europeans first encountered Confucianism, the issue of how Confucianism should be classified has been subject to debate. In other words, at a minimum, democracy needs Confucian meritocratic checks. Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). Analects. It remains the social code of the Chinese and continues to influence other countries particularly Korea Japan and Vietnam. Both the theory and practice of Confucianism have indelibly marked the patterns of government, society, education, and family of East Asia. Xunzi cites "songs and laughter, weeping and lamentation rice and millet, fish and meat the wearing of ceremonial caps, embroidered robes, and patterned silks, or of fasting clothes and mourning clothes spacious rooms and secluded halls, soft mats, couches and benches" as vital parts of the fabric of li. [48] Analects 10.11 tells that Confucius always took a small part of his food and placed it on the sacrificial bowls as an offering to his ancestors. The practice of meritocracy still exists across China and East Asia today, and a wide range of contemporary intellectualsfrom Daniel Bell to Tongdong Bai, Joseph Chan, and Jiang Qingdefend political meritocracy as a viable alternative to liberal democracy. Li (; ) is a classical Chinese word which finds its most extensive use in Confucian and post-Confucian Chinese philosophy. Robert Eno argues that the term has been "burdened with the ambiguities and irrelevant traditional associations". While the lower house does not have any legislative power per se, it acts as a popular accountability mechanism by championing the people and putting pressure on the upper house. The term Confucianism is derived from Confucius, the conventional name for Master Kong, the most revered sage of this religious tradition. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1963), 159. 6.1 million followers There are approximately 6.1 million followers of Confucianism worldwide. It is thought that his pure virtue would lead others to follow his example. The followers of the Buddhist religion accounts for 6% of the population. The use of the term "Confucianism" has been avoided by some modern scholars, who favor "Ruism" and "Ruists" instead. Bell and Wang favour a system in which officials at the local level are democratically elected and higher-level officials are promoted by peers. What was happening in China when Confucius lived? [155] More recently, some scholars have also begun to discuss the viability of constructing a "Confucian feminism". It focuses on innate human goodness and the importance of interpersonal human relationships. Confucian thought focuses on the cultivation of virtue in a morally organised world. East Asians may profess themselves to be Shintists, Daoists, Buddhists, Muslims, or Christians, but, by announcing their religious affiliations, seldom do they cease to be Confucians. That Confucius admitted students of different classes as disciples is a clear demonstration that he fought against the feudal structures that defined pre-imperial Chinese society. He felt that virtue (de), both as a personal quality and as a requirement for leadership, was essential for individual dignity, communal solidarity, and political order. Confucianism, the way of life propagated by Confucius in the 6th5th century bce and followed by the Chinese people for more than two millennia. It is postulated that certain elements of Leibniz's philosophy, such as "simple substance" and "Pre-established harmony", were borrowed from his interactions with Confucianism. [118] Because they believe that promotion should depend upon peer evaluations only, Bell and Wang argue against transparencyi.e. Instead, the scholar Mencius, who was born more than a century after Confucius died, adapted his philosophy and preached in different states. All these duties take the practical form of prescribed rituals, for instance wedding and death rituals.[44]. [79] The supreme godhead was also identified with the dragon, symbol of unlimited power (qi),[74] of the "protean" primordial power which embodies both yin and yang in unity, associated to the constellation Draco which winds around the north ecliptic pole,[72] and slithers between the Little and Big Dipper. [22]:190197 Several different terms, some of which with modern origin, are used in different situations to express different facets of Confucianism, including: Three of them use r. ), and one of representatives elected by the people. There are many characteristics of the junzi: he may live in poverty, he does more and speaks less, he is loyal, obedient and knowledgeable. Confucian ethics is characterised by the promotion of virtues, encompassed by the Five Constants, Wchng () in Chinese, elaborated by Confucian scholars out of the inherited tradition during the Han dynasty. [41], Confucius used the term in a mystical way. [62] At the same time, a proper Confucian ruler should also accept his ministers' advice, as this will help him govern the realm better. [24], According to Zhou Youguang, r originally referred to shamanic methods of holding rites and existed before Confucius's times, but with Confucius it came to mean devotion to propagating such teachings to bring civilisation to the people. [86] In 2003, the Confucian intellectual Kang Xiaoguang published a manifesto in which he made four suggestions: Confucian education should enter official education at any level, from elementary to high school; the state should establish Confucianism as the state religion by law; Confucian religion should enter the daily life of ordinary people through standardisation and development of doctrines, rituals, organisations, churches and activity sites; the Confucian religion should be spread through non-governmental organisations. As a whole, this group is expected to grow from about 58 million in 2010 to more than 61 million in 2050. [115] At the local level, as with Bell, Bai advocates Deweyan participatory democracy. [84] Confucius amended and recodified the classical books inherited from the Xia-Shang-Zhou dynasties, and composed the Spring and Autumn Annals. Using stricter definitions of religion, Confucianism has been described as a moral science or philosophy. The Master said, "He who exercises government by means of his virtue may be compared to the north polar star, which keeps its place and all the stars turn towards it.". This system depended on blood ties, marriage alliances, and old covenants as well as on newly negotiated contracts. . 11th century bce), who was said to have helped consolidate, expand, and refine the feudal ritual system. "[160] With the latter definition, Confucianism is religious, even if non-theistic, in the sense that it "performs some of the basic psycho-social functions of full-fledged religions. Some South Koreans believe Confucianism has not contributed to the modernisation of South Korea. RELIGION AS A PERCENTAGE OF WORLD POPULATION: 0.1 percent OVERVIEW. Zi-lu said, "The vassal of Wei has been waiting for you, in order with you to administer the government. Tseng, Roy (2020). For example, South Korean writer Kim Kyong-il wrote an essay[when?] When affairs cannot be carried on to success, proprieties and music do not flourish. Religious Landscape Study. The works of Confucius were translated into European languages through the agency of Jesuit missionaries stationed in China. Our editors will review what youve submitted and determine whether to revise the article. 1990. Confucius created the model of junzi, gentleman, which may be achieved by any individual. In so doing he attempted to redefine and revitalize the institutions that for centuries had been vital to political stability and social order: the family, the school, the local community, the state, and the kingdom. Scholars recognise that classification ultimately depends on how one defines religion. Confucius considered himself a transmitter of cultural values inherited from the Xia (c.20701600BCE), Shang (c.16001046BCE) and Western Zhou dynasties (c.1046771BCE). Roger T. Ames and Henry Rosemont, Jr.. They uphold that its modern transformation, as a creative response to the challenge of the West, is a continuation of its classical formulation and its medieval elaboration. [117], For those who, like Bell, defend a model in which performance at the local levels of government determines future promotion, an important question is how the system judges who "performs best". [114] Jiang's aim is to construct a legitimacy that will go beyond what he sees as the atomistic, individualist, and utilitarian ethos of modern democracies and ground authority in something sacred and traditional. Meanwhile, Islam promotes the unity of Muslims regardless of ethnicity or familial ties, creating an environment of extremely extroverted people. [128] This synthesis, blending Confucians rituals and institutions with a broader liberal democratic frame, is distinct from both Western-style liberalismwhich, for Tseng, suffers from excessive individualism and a lack of moral visionand from traditional Confucianismwhich, for Tseng, has historically suffered from rigid hierarchies and sclerotic elites. In 9.5 Confucius says that a person may know the movements of the tin, and this provides with the sense of having a special place in the universe. In 7.23 Confucius says that he has no doubt left that the Tin gave him life, and from it he had developed right virtue ( d). Kim said that filial piety is one-sided and blind, and if it continues, social problems will continue as government keeps forcing Confucian filial obligations onto families. Confucianism is the way of life propagated by Confucius in the 6th5th century BCE and followed by the Chinese people for more than two millennia. Submission to authority (tsun wang) was only taken within the context of the moral obligations that rulers had toward their subjects, in particular benevolence (jen). These names do not use the name "Confucius" at all, but instead focus on the ideal of the Confucian man. He, Baogang & Warren, Mark (2020). The Chinese imperial examination system started in the Sui dynasty. In Confucianism, the sage or wise is the ideal personality; however, it is very hard to become one of them. When actual, the king's personal virtue (de) spreads beneficent influence throughout the kingdom. Xi has expressed hope that China's "traditional cultures" of Confucianism, . The literature opposes those who prefer evaluation by peers to evaluation by superiors, with some thinkers including quasi-democratic selection mechanisms along the way. Therefore a superior man considers it necessary that the names he uses may be spoken appropriately, and also that what he speaks may be carried out appropriately. Baker calls respect for the family the only element common to almost all Chinese believers.[68]. Bell and Wang favour a system in which officials at the local level are democratically elected and higher-level officials are promoted by peers. [86], The idea of a "Confucian Church" as the state religion of China has roots in the thought of Kang Youwei, an exponent of the early New Confucian search for a regeneration of the social relevance of Confucianism, at a time when it was de-institutionalised with the collapse of the Qing dynasty and the Chinese empire. Get a Britannica Premium subscription and gain access to exclusive content. [141] During the Han dynasty period, the influential Confucian text Lessons for Women (Njie), was written by Ban Zhao (45114CE) to instruct her daughters how to be proper Confucian wives and mothers, that is, to be silent, hard-working, and compliant. Also, the Hong Kong Confucian Academy, one of the direct heirs of Kang Youwei's Confucian Church, has expanded its activities to the mainland, with the construction of statues of Confucius, Confucian hospitals, restoration of temples and other activities. During the Han dynasty (206BCE 220CE), Confucian approaches edged out the "proto-Taoist" HuangLao as the official ideology, while the emperors mixed both with the realist techniques of Legalism.[4]. Jiang Qing, by contrast, imagines a tricameral government with one chamber selected by the people (the House of the Commoners ), one chamber composed of Confucian meritocrats selected via examination and gradual promotion (the House of Confucian Tradition ), and one body made up of descendants of Confucius himself (The House of National Essence ). Confucius. Partly because of the vitality of the feudal ritual system and partly because of the strength of the royal household itself, the Zhou kings were able to control their kingdom for several centuries. [30] Individuals may realise their humanity and become one with Heaven through the contemplation of such order. Confucianism | Encyclopedia.com "Windows into China," John Parker, p. 25. [40] There are such a number of uses in Chinese thought that it is not possible to give one translation into English. What is the Difference Between Daoism and Confucianism? Muslims make up about 1.8 percent of China's population, accounting for around twenty-two million people . Social harmony or morality is identified as patriarchy, which is expressed in the worship of ancestors and deified progenitors in the male line, at ancestral shrines. [15][16] Most Confucianist movements have had significant differences from the original Zhou-era teachings.[17]. Filial piety is considered a key virtue in Chinese culture, and it is the main concern of a large number of stories. [74] While the Shang identified Shangdi as their ancestor-god to assert their claim to power by divine right, the Zhou transformed this claim into a legitimacy based on moral power, the Mandate of Heaven. In the past few decades, there have been talks of a "Confucian Revival" in the academic and the scholarly community,[18][19] and there has been a grassroots proliferation of various types of Confucian churches. [116] Tongdong Bai's approach incorporates different ways to select members of the meritocratic house, from exams to performance in various fieldsbusiness, science, administration, and so on. Many of Confucianism's followers also are believers in. [citation needed] The emperors of China were considered agents of Heaven, endowed with the Mandate of Heaven. "Political meritocracy versus ethical democracy: The Confucian political ideal revisited". Chinese Religions and Philosophies - National Geographic Society Like many contemporaries, Confucius saw ritual practices as efficacious ways to access Tian, but he thought that the crucial knot was the state of meditation that participants enter prior to engage in the ritual acts.